The year 2022 was particularly active when it came to earthquakes, counting 15,438 magnitudes from 4.0 to 8.0. Out of those earthquakes, 11 of them were major , with more than 2,000 fatalities. The one with the highest fatality was in Afghanistan, which killed more than 1,000 people last year.

With the number of earthquakes intensifying every year, understanding how such a phenomenon happens has become essential. This way, these catastrophes can potentially be predicted so that their impact is mitigated in the future.

What Are Earthquakes?

Earthquakes are caused by sudden slips in faults beneath the ground. Many people believe that earthquakes occur when tectonic plates begin moving underground – however, there is more to that. In fact, these tectonic plates are constantly moving, the friction occasionally causing them to get stuck at the edges.

When stress at the edge overcomes that friction, it quakes the earth around it, sending energy in waves into the earth’s crust. This turns into the shaking feel we get whenever there is an earthquake.

Earthquake intensities are described on the Richter scale, numbered from 1 to 10. Each type of earthquake has different occurrences and movement levels that determine its potential for danger. The table below is a representation of what each level looks like.

The numbers above are based on averages, especially when it comes to their occurrence. Over the past century, there has been a 265% surge in earthquakes of magnitudes past 8.0, raising concern over what’s to come.

What Human Activities Cause Earthquakes?

Earthquakes can happen whether we do anything about them or not. As the tectonic plates underneath the ground are constantly on the move, there will be times when they would naturally create friction. However, some human activities can lead to a higher frequency of earthquakes, including the following:

Mining

Mining has been around since old times, and nowadays, miners are digging deeper than ever before. With so many materials being removed from underneath the ground, this causes instability, which can further trigger earthquakes.

Dam Building

Dam building has also been deemed as a cause for earthquakes, leading to some of the deadliest incidents in history. For example, the 2008 earthquake in Sichuan, China, reached a 7.9 Richter scale and presumably killed more than 80,000 people. Scientists believe the earthquake was caused by the 320 million tons of water that connected on top of the fault line, creating stress points when the tectonic plates moved.

Fracking: Drilling

Fracking for natural gas and oil has become a common practice, and the United States currently has more than 1.7 million active fracking sites. During the fracking process, liquid is injected at high pressure into the rocks, hoping to create fissures that can expose oil. The pressure caused by fracking was believed to trigger earthquakes, which is why many people living near these sites have issued a multitude of lawsuits.

Fracking: Wastewater Disposal

Fracking involves using a lot of water, sand, and chemicals, which eventually turn into wastewater. The high pressure caused by the water as it is disposed in the ground is believed to crack rocks and lubricate the faults underground, leading to earthquakes.

Nuclear Explosions

Last but not least, earthquakes can also be triggered by nuclear explosions. The test bomb in North Korea in 2017 sent an aftershock that lasted about 8 months. The bomb was situated near a fault line that was not mapped up until that point, and it triggered two earthquakes at first: a 6.3 one and a 4.0 after-quake only a couple of minutes later. Multiple other earthquakes were recorded in South Korea and China, which is why scientists determined a nuclear explosion could potentially trigger this phenomenon.

How to Mitigate the Impact of Earthquakes

There is little that you can do to stop an earthquake. Once it starts, all that’s left for you is to ride it out. However, there are certain things that you can do to mitigate its damage.

Securing the Interior

First things first, you need to secure the interior by identifying potential hazards. Earthquake-induced shaking or potential aftershocks can cause even the heaviest appliances to move, which is why you’ll want to secure them. For example, if you own a casino, you should make sure to place heavy casino slots on the floor. If you have items that need to be put on shelves, then you can place them on lower shelves. Also, you can:

• Apply safety films to glass and windows.
• Install ledge barriers on shelves.
• Anchor filing cabinets and TVs to the wall.
• Use closed hooks to hang pictures and mirrors.

Moreover, discover the best places to shelter yourself. During an earthquake, you should find shelter underneath sturdy furniture or next to an inside wall. Avoid areas with shelves, glass, mirrors, or items that could potentially fall over (big or small).

Providing Earthquake Education

Earthquakes cannot be avoided, which is why the best way to survive or protect your belongings is to remain knowledgeable. If you own or manage a structure, a good way to mitigate the impact of the earthquake is to provide access to educational resources.

Even a secured interior has the potential to sustain damage during a big earthquake. Plans on where to shelter or what to do in an emergency should be shared with your house and office mates. Some good ways to keep them informed may include the following:

• Posters on the building walls on how to protect themselves.
• Online web pages where they can find the information they require.
• Webinars and articles where they can find out how to protect themselves and others.
• Regular introductory classes on safety protocol for new or returning members.

One good tip would be to offer them incentives to take the earthquake safety course. For instance, to continue the casino example above, you can offer incentives such as 20 free spins on registration add card no deposit. You can choose the rewards you give them yourself, but the incentive will make them more likely to familiarize themselves with the safety protocol.

Building Safe Structures

When building or choosing an earthquake-safe structure, there are certain techniques that you can keep in mind. A combination of the following items will ensure that the building will withstand even the heaviest of earthquakes.

One thing that you may want to avoid is adding columns to the ground floor instead of walls. While these are aesthetically pleasing and create an open space, they cannot handle the shaking caused by a big earthquake. Instead, shear walls can offer a sturdier structure since they feature diagonal steel cross braces.

When choosing the material, you should know that reinforced concrete has the best chance of withstanding a bigger earthquake. The concrete also needs to be properly anchored to the foundation, which is why strong connections are necessary. If the connections are weak, then the building is at risk of shifting during an earthquake.

Conclusion

Earthquakes cannot be avoided, and they are just as difficult to predict. While scientists have uncovered most quake causes, there is little to be done once it starts. This is why it is essential to secure the environment and learn to protect yourself during an earthquake.

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Among the worst parts of climate change is the sea level rise. Cities in the United States are nowadays spending billions of dollars to stop the effects of coastal flooding. Many cities are already sunken underneath the sea, and many others may be expected to go underwater by 2050.

How we know this is simple: we’ve seen the maps. We’ve seen how the lands changed, how there is less land now and more water. We’ve seen the continents change their shape, and drift apart as the tectonic plates started shifting. And as this happens, the climate is also taking a hit. Slowly, but surely, it’s changing.

But what exactly is geodesy, and how can it help us understand climate change? In this article, you will learn how monitoring sea level rise and land subsidence can give us a better understanding of climate change.

What Is Geodesy?

Geodesy is the science of measuring the shape, size, mass distribution, and orientation of the Earth. This collection of accurate measurements gives us a better understanding of how its shape changes with time and what we may expect from the future.

In the past, geodesy was used mostly for this: surveillance, to determine exactly what the earth’s position is. Now, there is a greater toolbox of appliances that researchers and students can use. In the past few years, geodesy went from monitoring earthquake hazards and plate motions to mapping landslides, volcanic activity, climate change, weather damage, and water resources.

Several system types are used to determine the geodetic data of the earth, including:

• GPS (Global Positioning Systems)
• GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems)
• LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
• InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar)
• GRACE (Gravity Recovery & Climate Experiment)
• Altimetry
• Meters (tilt, borehole, creep)

For the most part, geodetic tools such as GPS were used to determine horizontal and vertical motion, as a way to potentially predict seismic and tectonic activity. That being said, this positioning can also be used to determine how the continents will look in the future and how much the lands will subside.

How Geodesy Helps Understand Climate Change

There is no doubt in our minds that geodesy has made great improvements over time. In its observation of land and orientation changes, geodesy helps us understand how the lands are changing. In the past, this was nothing to be concerned about – the lands remained mostly the same, aside from the change in position.

However, during the last few decades, we’ve seen the concerning effects of human-induced climate change. As the water levels are rising, many countries are at risk of being completely overflown.

Geodesy in itself cannot do much against climate change or its effects. That being said, it will give us the necessary information to possibly predict future scenarios. By knowing these changes, decision-makers can take the necessary actions to slow the effects of climate change or find the least damaging alternative possible.

Why Is Climate Change Causing the Sea Level to Rise?

As droughts are becoming very common and the temperatures are continuously rising, we see entire countries making efforts to use as little water as possible. After all, our water seems to be running out, which means we’ll have to use every amount as smart as we can.

That being said, global warming does not mean that we no longer have water. What we see is that there is water where there shouldn’t be. Water levels have gone up by 24 centimeters since 1880. In 2023, the sea level was about 101.2 millimeters above the data from 1993, bringing it to the highest average recorded by the satellites. The table below features a representation of how sea levels changed over the last few years:

There are several reasons why the sea levels are on the rise as the earth is warming. This can include the following:

Warming Water

One big factor in why the sea levels are rising is the general increase in temperatures. This heats the sea, causing something referred to as “thermal expansion.” When this happens, it leads to an expansion of the water volume, causing the sea levels to rise and go over existing lands and coastlines.

Groundwater Depletion

A small contributor to sea level rises is also the depletion of water on the land. This includes lakes, aquifers, rivers, reservoirs, and soil moisture. As the lands are going through times of lengthy drought, the water from the grounds is shifting into the ocean. This causes a slight rise in the oceans – especially as wastewater always makes its way into the oceans.

Melting Glaciers

By far, one of the main reasons why sea levels are rising is the melting of ice sheets and glaciers, which adds to the ocean water volume. The average volume loss of glaciers has quintupled over the past couple of decades, going from 171 mm of liquid water in 1980 to 850 mm in 2018.

Greenland ice sheets have also begun losing up to 247 billion tons of water per year in the past decade, whereas Antarctica saw about 199 billion tons per year. This is a significant increase from 1990 when Greenland lost about 34 billion and Antarctica an average of 51 billion.

Actions to Reduce the Effects of Climate Change

At this point, we know that there is not much that can be done to stop climate change altogether. The earth will follow its natural course, and we also need to live our lives comfortably. What we can do is reduce the carbon footprint that we leave behind. Some common techniques include the following:

• Reducing energy consumption
• Adequately insulating homes and buildings
• Switching to remote environments
• Changing the energy source
• Reducing personal vehicle usage
• Switching to electric vehicles
• Reducing long-distance travels
• Eating more vegetables
• Reducing, reusing, repairing, and recycling
• Keeping the environment clean

For the most part, carbon and oil emissions represent one of the main causes of climate change, leading to rising temperatures and water levels. This domino effect can potentially determine land subsidence, causing many cities to risk going underwater.

Reducing your carbon footprint is one of the best ways to do your part in slowing down climate change. A reduction in high-fuel-consumption utilities such as heavy machinery, gas-based cars, or airplanes can significantly reduce the effects of climate change (provided you are not the only one doing it).

The concern is real, which is why many countries have implemented strategies for governments and businesses to follow. For instance, the Climate Change Act issued in 2008 and amended in 2019 aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reaching net zero by 2050.

Conclusion

Geodesy can tell us quite a lot about how our planet is changing and how climate change is affecting our landscape. With the data we receive, we can make the best decisions to reduce our carbon footprint and potentially prevent ourselves from going underwater.

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These tips were researched in partnership with Nick Wilson, the founder of Advance SOS – a reputable financial company with extensive experience in the cash advance industry. Our collaboration aims to provide you with valuable insights and strategies to transition effectively into the business industry.

These tips will be helpful to you because making a career switch can be daunting, especially when it involves moving from a technical field like geology to business. However, it is entirely possible to make the transition with a well-planned approach and some perseverance. Here are some tips on how to switch careers from geology to business.

Understand Your Motivations

Understanding your motivations is the foundational step in making a successful career switch. You must identify why you want to leave your current field and embark on a new career path. It could be because you are seeking new challenges that your current role doesn’t offer, or you may be looking to earn more money. It could also be due to a newfound passion for business and a desire to explore this field further. Understanding your motivations is crucial as it helps you set clear goals for your new career.

Research the Business Field

Before making the switch, it is essential to research the business field thoroughly. What are the different types of business roles available, and which ones interest you the most? What skills and qualifications do you need to be successful in these roles? What are the job prospects and earning potential? Talk to people in the business field, attend networking events, and read industry publications to gain a better understanding of what to expect. You may also want to consider pursuing a business degree or taking online courses to gain additional knowledge and skills.

Consider Your Transferable Skills

As a geologist, you may have developed skills that can be transferred to the business field. Take an inventory of your skills and experiences, and determine how they can be applied in the business field. For example, geologists are trained to analyze data, work independently, and communicate effectively. These skills are highly valued in business roles, so be sure to highlight them on your resume and during interviews.

Gain Relevant Experience

To switch to a business career, you may need to gain some relevant experience. You can do this by volunteering or interning in a business-related field, taking courses or certifications, or freelancing. This will help you to build a network, learn new skills, and gain practical experience that will make you more attractive to potential employers.

Network

Networking is an essential part of any career switch, especially when moving to a new field. Attend business events, join professional associations, and reach out to people who work in the business field. This will help you to learn about job opportunities, get advice on how to switch careers and build connections that could lead to job offers.

Create a Strong Resume and Cover Letter

Your resume and cover letter are your first opportunity to make a good impression on potential employers. Be sure to highlight your transferable skills and relevant experience, and tailor your resume and cover letter to the specific job you are applying for. Use keywords and phrases from the job description to demonstrate your understanding of the industry and the role.

Prepare for Interviews

When preparing for interviews, be ready to explain why you want to switch careers and how your skills and experiences make you a good fit for the role. Be prepared to answer questions about your business knowledge and demonstrate your passion for the industry.

Be Prepared for Challenges

Switching careers is not easy, and there may be challenges along the way. You may face rejection, have to start at a lower level, or need to take a pay cut. However, with perseverance and a positive attitude, you can overcome these challenges and achieve your career goals.

With careful planning and persistence, switching careers from geology to business can be a feasible feat. It’s crucial to identify your motivations, research the business field, accentuate your transferable skills, acquire relevant experience, expand your network, craft a strong resume and cover letter, and prepare for potential obstacles. These critical steps can pave the way for a successful career transition. Wishing you the best of luck on your career journey!

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Geodesists use GPS to monitor the movement of a particular area around the clock and throughout the week. When applying geodesy to other planets, it’s called planetary geodesy, which involves the study of other astronomical bodies like planets or circumplanetary systems.

That said, below are ways in which geodesy is of importance to us:

#1. Accurate Representation of Topography Maps

Topography or land surface elevation finds vital scientific applications in geology, botany, zoology, erosion, hazards, etc. Data from topographic maps are one of the most important factors in determining the degree of flooding, base flood elevation, and water surface elevations and hence the accuracy of flood maps in riverine regions.

Similarly, accurate topographic maps – which are products of geodesy – can help us in aircraft navigation and recreational activities like backpacking and hiking. Through geodesic information, Google Earth© regularly updates its base layer with the latest topographic data. With accurate topographic information, commercial activities like planning pipelines, cell phone tower placement, and vehicle routing to economize fuel are now more efficient.

Modern US topography is now done with a higher accuracy of 10cm or better, thanks to aircraft radar and other precise geodetic infrastructure.

#2. GPS (Global Positioning System) Monitoring and Improvement 

Geodetic infrastructure has contributed significantly to improvements in the GPS (Global Positioning System). For instance, through geodesic research, there’s now a third GPS frequency. Also, future GPS satellites can have laser retroreflectors – used to accurately determine the orbits of satellites around the Earth.

Also, NASA’s GDGPS (Global Differential GPS) performs integrity monitoring and GPS situational assessment for the US Defence Department. This GDGPS is the foundation for real-time orbit improvement for the Advanced Control Segment – an Air Force-sponsored project to improve GPS accuracy.

#3. Space Exploration

Aside from earthly applications, geodesy remains very relevant in the exploration of the solar system and other regions. Since geodetic systems have worked well on Earth, they can also be applied to extraterrestrial bodies.

For instance, the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) project utilizes a technique for determining the moon’s gravity that was developed by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Change (GRACE) project based on Earth. Before having the opportunity for in-depth study of the earth or other planets, we must depend on information from surface observations like geodetic and seismic measurements to grasp their interior structure.

The precession of the rotation axis of Mars has been measured, and its terrain and gravity field have been mapped through geodetic techniques. Through these observations, scientists now have estimates of the mass, size, and physical state of its core.

Also, there are estimates of the seasonal variations of mass in its polar ice caps. In the aviation industry, geodesic infrastructure is also necessary to track spacecraft locations from Earth because as spacecraft get farther away from the Earth, there’s an increase in the demand for accuracy in the angular resolution of tracking.

#4. Real-Time Geodetic Positions

Through geodesy, we can get accurate real-time locations, which are useful in a wide array of commercial services and applications. The accurate positions of GPS/GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) satellites in their orbits and a frame of reference from Earth are used to accurately determine an object’s location on the Earth’s surface.

The global geodetic infrastructure enables accurate real-time positioning for applications and services like surveying, and precision agriculture, through networks like the NOAA/NGS CORS (Continuously Operating Reference Station).

The CORS network is also a vital part of the NSRS (National Spatial Reference System) – which gives a very consistent and accurate geographic reference framework throughout the US, enabling the integration and registration of various data layers in the geographic and land information systems. 

#5. Determining Accurate Satellite Orbits

Satellites are now equipped to provide a good number of vital services such as communications, weather forecasts, land-use monitoring, etc. It is possible to determine exactly where a satellite is in its orbit by simply attaching a GNSS/GPS receiver to it.

So, when the highest accuracy is needed, it becomes necessary to support the GNSS/GPS data with information obtained from global geodetic infrastructure like the ITRF (International Terrestrial Reference Frame) and the International GNSS Service network.

Additionally, geodetic observations contribute to the development of models of Earth’s gravity field, as well as the Earth’s rotation rate and rotation axis, which help to determine the gravitational forces on the satellite. That way, satellites can be positioned accurately for various applications like radar imaging, radar and laser altimetry, gravimetry, etc.

Final Thoughts

Geodesy has significantly impacted modern-day geology, surveying, astronomy, aeronautics, meteorology, and thus human life and existence. The above are only some of its present applications. Research is still ongoing in future use cases of this science and how it can improve human life on Earth and beyond.

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Geologic Time
Geologic time is described by a geochronological scale, which is divided into time intervals lasting hundreds of thousands of years. This great geological discovery today underlies the history of the Earth before the existence of man on it. Anyone interested can use this scale to get reliable information on each period of the formation of the planet and the most significant natural phenomena that occurred on it.

Geological age of the earth
According to scientists’ hypotheses, the age of our planet is estimated at 4.5 to 4.7 billion years, during which the movement of lithospheric plates, the appearance and extinction of different species of living beings took place. Meteorites have fallen to the surface of the Earth’s crust, and there has been periodic climate change in the atmosphere, triggering global warming or an ice age. The structure of the earth today is the result of these irreversible changes and the history of the earth’s development.

To determine the geological age of the Earth, scientists have spent many years conducting extensive archaeological excavations, laboratory research, theoretical calculations, observing the stars, taking samples of images and performing many other types of complex analytical work. Nevertheless, this hypothesis, despite its accuracy, is only theoretical, and no scientist in the world has yet been able to prove it definitively.

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• Geometric parameters of the Earth, or parts of it, specifying dimensions, coordinate grids, positions of specific points in a three-dimensional coordinate system.
• Analysis of the relief of the Earth’s surface with determination of high-altitude coordinates.
• Studying and recording geodynamics, i.e., changes in the shape of the Earth’s crust over time to correct maps.
• Calculation of gravitational forces in different areas of the globe.
• Fixing coordinate systems report, height marks, from which is measured with the installation of reference points and relative coordinates.
• Creating, analyzing, correcting maps, atlases, using analytical ways of constructing a geodetic grid.
• Creation of coordinate systems for the convenience of conducting measurements of the earth’s crust.
• Conducting measurements of areas of the earth using various techniques.
• Analysis of results obtained as a result of measurements with their subsequent practical application for the creation of site plans, atlases, maps and other analytical products.

Thus, modern geodesy provides not only valuable reliable knowledge in the field of various parameters of the Earth, but is also used for applied purposes in the direction of territory boundaries for its further registration for the right holder.

Types of geodesic works
Geodesy is such a natural and technical science, which requires the mandatory performance of the following types of basic and auxiliary works:

• Preparatory work, which consists in analyzing the territory, determining the existing reference points, geodetic grids and coordinates for the possibility of surveying a specific plot or object with a georeferencing.
• Field work consisting in application of specialized professional equipment having a connection with GPS coordinates and characterized by a higher precision for determining coordinates or height marks with a view to georeferencing a specific object or checking the correctness of its location.
• Desk processing of the results of field work, which consist in transferring the coordinates and geometric parameters identified in the field into an electronic file, on paper, in order to create official documentation, or to provide designers, as a reference scheme for planting a building, development of drawings of landscaping, vertical layout, location of external utility networks, land surveying.

The final product of geodesy is an executive survey, map, master plan, or other types of graphic representation of the terrain, tied to the object of capital construction.

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Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually crystalline and abiogenic (inorganic) in origin. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, while a stone may be a collection of different minerals or mineraloids. The science of minerals is called mineralogy.

There are more than 5,300 known types of minerals. Silicate minerals make up over 90% of the Earth’s crust. Silicon and oxygen form about 75% of the Earth’s crust, which is directly related to the predominance of silicate minerals.

Minerals differ in chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure make it possible to recognize the species that were determined by the geological environment of the mineral when they were formed. Fluctuations in temperature, pressure or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in minerals.

Rocks
Rocks are solid mixtures of at least one mineral. While minerals have crystals and chemical formulas, rocks are characterized by texture and mineral composition. On this basis, rocks are divided into three groups: igneous rocks (formed by the gradual cooling of magma), metamorphic rocks (formed by the alteration of igneous and sedimentary rocks) and sedimentary rocks (formed at low temperatures and pressures when marine and continental sediments are transformed). These three major rock types participate in a process called the rock cycle, which describes the labor-intensive transitions, both on the surface and underground, from one rock type to another over long periods of geologic time.

Fossils
Fossils are signs of living things that existed a very long time ago. They can represent imprints of bodies or even products of organisms. Fossils also include footprints, burrows, nests, and other indirect signs. Fossils are clear evidence of early life on Earth. Geologists have compiled an account of ancient life extending back hundreds of millions of years.

Fossils are of practical importance because they change throughout geologic time. The assemblage of fossils serves to identify rocks. The geologic time scale is based almost exclusively on fossil remains and is supplemented by other dating methods. With its help, we can confidently compare sedimentary rocks from around the world. Fossils are also valuable museum pieces and collectors’ items.

Landforms, Geologic Structures, and Maps
Landforms in all their diversity are the result of the rock cycle. They have been shaped by erosion and other processes. Landforms provide information about how the Earth’s crust formed and changed in the geologic past, such as the Ice Age.

Geologic Processes and Threats
Geologic processes result in the cycling of rocks, the creation of structures and landforms, and fossils. They include erosion, deposition, fossilization, faulting, uplift, metamorphism, and volcanism.

Geologic hazards are powerful expressions of geologic processes. Landslides, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, climate change, floods, and cosmic impacts are prime examples of hazards. Understanding basic geologic processes can help humanity reduce the damage from geologic disasters.

Earth Tectonics and History
Tectonics is geological activity at its largest scale. As geologists mapped rocks and studied geological features and processes, they began to raise and answer questions about tectonics-the life cycle of mountain ranges and volcanic chains, the movement of continents, the rise and fall of world ocean levels, and what processes occur in the Earth’s core and mantle. Plate tectonics explains how the lithospheric plates move and has made it possible to study our planet as a single structure.

Earth’s geologic history is the story told by minerals, rocks, fossils, topography, and tectonics. Studies of fossils, combined with various methods, provide a coherent evolutionary history of life on Earth. The Phanerozoic Eon (age of the fossils) of the last 542 million years is well mapped as a time of abundant fauna and flora and accented by mass extinctions. The previous four billion years, Precambrian time, was a time of huge changes in the atmosphere, oceans, and continents.

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• The main geodesic disciplines is topography, that is, the determination of geographic coordinates and elevation of a specific area or point on the ground with the designation of this object on the plan.
• Higher geodesy is an independent science, which implies the application of elements of higher mathematics in order to describe the laws of gravity, changes in coordinate systems, kinematic and dynamic phenomena occurring on the planet.
• Engineering geodetic discipline – is applied for applied purposes in surveying a specific plot, terrain, for the purpose of drawing up cadastral documents, registering property rights, conducting land surveying, assigning easements and other legal actions.
• Cartography – from the definition it is clear that this applied science is engaged in drawing up plans of the area at different scales with the denotation of the territory boundaries, horizontals, elevation marks of relief and other important nuances, which allow to draw up an accurate map of the area, district, region or more extended territories.
• Photogrammetry – a relatively modern branch of geodetic sciences, which implies the design of maps and plans of areas inaccessible to humans on photographs from satellites or other graphic materials derived from the results of photo fixation of the territory, objects located on the ground.
• Geodesic astronomy or space geodesy is also an independent discipline, which implies determination and registration of geographic coordinates by location and movement of celestial bodies in space, based on long-term observations of them.
• Auxiliary disciplines that are also separate divisions of geodesy are military, marine topography, gravimetry and some other less well-known scientific fields, distinguished by narrow specialization.

To accurately answer the question of what is geodesy, it is recommended to study all the maps and other executed surveys of different types of terrain, made by profile specialists. Each object in the studied territory, its coordinates, altitude marks, kinematic phenomena and other processes are described precisely in geodesy. Thus, without knowledge of geodesic disciplines, mankind still would not have had an accurate idea of the size of our planet, the features of the relief and other important facts.

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Geotectonics
Geotectonics is the core of geology, and this science involves the global study of the interior of the crust, the patterns and trajectories of movement of the lithospheric plates.

It is thanks to geotectonics that reliable geological maps are made, and ultrasonic methods make it possible to determine precisely what is in the depth of rock masses or the thickness of the earth’s crust, the change of this morphological parameter over the years.

Geotectonics is rooted deep in history, and today scientists seek to determine the nature of the Earth’s crust changes, depending on various mechanical influences. This science allows us to predict the approximate age of our planet, as well as the time period during which it will remain suitable for human life.

Volcanology
From the name of this section of geology it is clear that the science studies the cause of volcano formation, their internal structure, and also predicts the risk of eruption and approximately calculates the possible consequences of this phenomenon for human life, climate and morphological changes in the earth’s crust.

The need to separate volcanology into an independent science arose many years ago, after a series of devastating volcanic eruptions that claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of people.

Volcanology is inextricably linked with geotectonics, because molten magma comes to the surface of the Earth’s crust precisely because of changes in the location of lithospheric plates, or because of their collision.

Scientists have long mapped active and dormant volcanoes for the entire globe and monitor potentially hazardous areas. Such areas are usually located in places of tectonic rifts and in areas where the thickness of the crust is minimal.

Seismology .
This science as an independent part of geology appeared comparatively recently. One of the founders of this science was seismologist Charles Richter, who created a scale of numerical values of magnitude of the Earth’s crust vibrations.

When the lithospheric plates are brought into increased activity due to a combination of external or internal factors, they begin to vibrate. Seismic laboratories around the world record these pulses well in advance of an earthquake and transmit important information to rescue services, allowing timely action to be taken to save the population.

Modern seismology involves sophisticated electromagnetic and navigational metrology equipment that provides instantaneous automatic recording of pulses from long distances, including on the ocean floor, preventing tsunamis.

Geocryology
This branch of geology studies frozen soils located in special climatic zones that are characterized by low temperatures, long winters, and minimal precipitation.

Typically, this section of geology studies ground frost heave, the development of permafrost on a territorial basis, and the chemical composition and physical and mechanical characteristics of these ground bases.

Considering that most of the mining industry is located in areas with a harsh climate in the northern regions of our country, geocryological studies are conducted in these areas prior to the development and construction of mining enterprises.

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Magmatic rocks form at points on Earth where the Earth’s crust is breaking up or new crust is forming. This is in subduction zones (where the old ocean floor sinks beneath the continents), or in mid-ocean ridges.

These areas underground reach temperatures above 1000 ºC, which melts rocks and minerals, becoming part of the magma. Rising to the surface, the magma cools and igneous or magmatic rocks are formed.

Igneous rocks are 59% feldspars, 17% amphiboles and pyroxenes, 12% quartz, 4% mica and 8% other minerals. There are some richer in silicon with little iron and magnesium (silicic) and others with more iron and magnesium than silica (ferromagnesian).

Its texture varies, determined by the ratio between crystal and glass, the size and shape of its particles and their arrangement among themselves. These rocks can be intrusive if they form when magma cools below the surface, and igneous if they come from lava.

Magmatic rocks make up about 95% of the rocks in the Earth’s crust, but they are less visible than sedimentary rocks. Among them are basalt, granite, obsidian and pumice, in addition to about 700 more described species.

Characteristics of igneous rocks
The general characteristics of igneous rocks are given by their origin, as they are the product of solidified magma. They are the only rocks derived from solidified liquid material.

Composition of magma
The type of igneous rock is determined by the composition of the magma and how and where it solidifies, with over 700 different types known. When the composition of the magma is dominated by iron and magnesium, mafic rocks are formed, and if silicon dioxide is predominant, felsic rocks are obtained.

Similarly, the proportion of silica oxide determines the pH of the igneous rock, and if it exceeds 65%, the rock will be acidic. While if it is between 45% and 65%, neutral rocks are obtained and below 45% they are basic.

The effect of cooling the magma
In addition, the cooling process by magma affects the resulting rock because under the crust, cooling is slower, creating more crystallization. If the magma is exposed to air and water as it rises as lava, it cools faster, glass transition occurs and glassy rocks (volcanic glass) can form.

Igneous rocks are formed from magma, a liquid composed of molten rock, suspended crystals and gases. This magma is found in the Earth’s mantle and is recycled during the process of crustal renewal in continental drift.

Magma rises from the deepest layers of the crust and solidifies, crystallizing to form igneous rocks beneath the crust. They undergo a slow cooling process that determines the type of crystallization, which is called fractional.

Therefore, at each stage of cooling (depending on temperature), some minerals crystallize and then others. Thus, magmatic rocks with large crystals and with a smaller proportion of glass emerge.

Sometimes magma can rise strongly to the surface through volcanic eruptions in the form of lava, cooling faster.For example, igneous rocks called Pele’s hair are formed when wind carries fragments of molten lava in suspension.

Sudden cooling of basaltic magma droplets or lava flows flowing into the sea can also occur. These igneous rocks have smaller crystals and a higher proportion of glass.

Continental drift, magma and igneous rocks
The Earth has a solid iron core surrounded by a molten phase and above this a mantle that has a first layer that goes from liquid to semi-solid and a solid upper layer (crust). This crust breaks down into plates that shift due to the motion generated by thermal convection beneath it.

The magma rises and comes out on mid-ocean ridges, which are volcanic ridges on the seafloor. There, the crust becomes thinner and magma emerges, forming a new ocean floor that pushes the old one, and when it collides with continental plates, it sinks, melting again.

In this process, rocks and minerals melt to form part of the magma that will reappear on continental ridges and volcanic areas. It is at these points that igneous rocks are formed when the magma cools.

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